Table 4 Results from studies assessing reliability

Alonso et al. [43]

Squeeze test

–

Kappa 0.50

External rotation test

–

Kappa 0.75

The palpation test (syndesmosis ligament)

–

Kappa 0.36

Dorsiflexion compression test

–

Kappa 0.36

Großterlinden et al. [50]

Tenderness on palpation:

Anterior inferior tibiofibular ligament

–

Kappa 0.605

Proximal fibula

–

Kappa 0.652

Deltoid ligament

–

Kappa 0.646

anterior talo-fibular ligament

–

Kappa 0.391

Calcaneo-fibular ligament

–

Kappa 0.455

Syndesmosis Squeeze test

–

Kappa 0.450

External rotation test

–

Kappa 0.399

Drawer test

–

Kappa 0.366

Cotton test

–

Kappa 0.524

Crossed-leg test

–

Kappa 0.440

Overall rating

–

Kappa 0.626

Hosseinian et al. [53]

Anterior drawer test (anterior talofibular ligament)^a

–

Kappa 0.356

Anterior drawer test (anterior talofibular ligament)^b

–

Kappa 0.461

Anterior drawer test (anterior talofibular ligament)^c

–

Kappa 0.349

Inversion stress test (anterior talofibular ligament)^a

–

Kappa − 0.093

Inversion stress test (anterior talofibular ligament)^b

–

Kappa 0.085

Inversion stress test (anterior talofibular ligament)^c

–

Kappa 0.214

Inversion stress test (posterior talofibular ligament)^a

–

Kappa 0.048

Inversion stress test (posterior talofibular ligament)^b

–

Kappa 0.025

Inversion stress test (calcaneofibular ligament)^a

–

Kappa 0.211

Inversion stress test (calcaneofibular ligament)^b

–

Kappa 0.399

Inversion stress test (calcaneofibular ligament)^c

–

Kappa 0.236

Eversion stress test (deltoid ligament)^a

–

Kappa 0.072

Eversion stress test (deltoid ligament)^b

–

Kappa 0.162

Squeeze test (syndesmosis)^a

–

Kappa 0.320

Squeeze test (syndesmosis)^b

–

Kappa 0.296

External rotation stress test (syndesmosis)^a

–

Kappa 0.255

External rotation stress test (syndesmosis)^b

–

Kappa 0.296

Li et al. [52]

Anterior Drawer test

–

Kappa 0.196

Anterolateral drawer test

–

Kappa 0.528

Reverse anterior drawer test

–

Kappa 0.639

Parasher et al. [17]

Anterior drawer: goniometer

Tester 1: ICC 0.96 (0.94, 0.98)

Tester 2: ICC 0.97 (0.96, 0.98)

ICC 0.70 (0.48, 0.82)

Distal fibular position: digital vernier caliper

Tester 1: ICC 0.97 (0.95, 0.98)

Tester 2: ICC 0.91 (0.85, 0.95)

ICC 0.60 (0.40, 0.78)

Vaseenon et al. [51]

Anterolateral drawer test

ICC 0.8017

ICC 0.5230

Anterior drawer test

ICC 0.9443

ICC 0.5274

Wilkin et al. [19]

Anterior drawer in supine

–

Experienced and student: ICC 0.16 (0.10, 0.33)

Experienced raters: ICC 0.23 (− 0.02, 0.46)

Anterior drawer in Crook lying

–

Experienced and student: ICC 0.06 (− 0.08, 0.23)

Experienced raters: ICC − 0.12 (− 0.36, 0.14)

Talar tilt

–

Experienced and student: ICC 0.33 (0.17,0.50)

Experienced raters: ICC 0.22 (− 0.02, 0.45)

Inversion Tilt

–

Experienced and student: ICC 0.29 (0.13, 0.46)

Experienced raters: ICC 0.26 (0.00, 0.48)